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Privacy policy

Capiro recognises the importance of your privacy. We are concerned to protect all personal data that we obtain from you in the course of operating our business.

This privacy policy identifies what personal data we collect, why we collect it, where it is stored, what we do with it and how long we store it.

IMPORTANT – We use cookies only to support essential functions of the website. We do not use cookies for tracking visitors to the site, or to support advertising.

By using our website and purchasing our training courses you agree to the use of the data that we collect as defined in this Privacy Policy.

We may update this policy as necessary, e.g.

  • To comply with changes in the law.
  • To reflect changes in the services and products that we offer.
  • If we start to collect any personal data other than that described in this policy.
  • If we store data in other locations to those described in this policy.
  • If we start to process the data differently to what is described in this policy.

Capiro Ltd. is registered with the UK Information Commissioner’s Office.

Information about the data we collect

When do we collect personal data?

We collect personal data about you in the following circumstances:

  • When you subscribe to be kept informed about events, changes and additions to our range of products and services.
  • When you purchase a product or service from us.
  • When you email us or send us a contact form.

What data do we collect?

Subscribing to be kept informed about upcoming courses

  • Your email address.

You may cancel your subscriptions or memberships at any time, either by clicking ‘unsubscribe’ at the footer of emails we send you or by notifying us, e.g. by sending us a contact form.

Completing a contact form

  • To submit a contact form to us, you will need to provide your email address, first name and family name. This allows us to address you in a polite and respectful manner.
  • When completing a contact form, you may optionally add your company name and a phone number.

Purchasing a course

When purchasing an online course from us, you are asked to provide:

  • First and last name
  • Postal address
  • Phone number

Optionally, you may supply your company name

What do we use your data for?

We use the personal data you share with us to:

  • Provide the products or services that you request.
  • Provide help and guidance whilst you are using that product or service.
  • Answer your questions and communicate with you about your member account or transactions with us.

Where is your data stored?

Our web site is hosted by the company, Rainmaker Data Services (RMDS), which is based in the United States of America.

Therefore, when you submit data to us, e.g. by completing and submitting a form on our website, you are transferring this data into the USA and in using our services you consent to such transfer.

How long do we retain your data?

Legal constraints

If you purchase a product from Capiro, we will hold the data in accordance with UK law, particularly legislation related to taxation.

Subscriptions to a mailing list

Normally we retain data associated with subscriptions until we receive a request from you to unsubscribe from a mailing list.

We will periodically review our list of subscribers and members. If your membership appears to be inactive, we may contact you to see if you still want your information to be held by us. If you do not, we will delete it.

Other

We would normally retain information that you communicate to us by email or by submitting a contact form for only as long as it is useful to dealing with the matter that you raise. We may retain specific information if it will help us to provide a better and more personalised service to you.

Who do we share your information with?

The information we collect about you is not shared with or sold to any other organisation.

Online payments for our products and services are made exclusively by you via Stripe or PayPal. All such transactions are therefore strictly between you and Stripe or PayPal.

We use Google Analytics to help us analyse our web traffic.

Your right to see what data we store about you.

You have a right in law to see the information that we hold about you.

If you are a subscriber to an email list, the only information that we hold is your email address and possibly your first name and/or family name, as specified by you. You may unsubscribe from a list at any time.

If you purchase a course from you, a member account is set up automatically; the system will recognise you as a ‘member’. The details of your member account are shown on your ‘profile’. You may view and update your profile, online, at any time. You can also access your profile to change your password.

You may let us know if you want your member account to be deleted.

Additional comments

If you would like to comment on our privacy policy, or request additional information about it, please submit a contact form.

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What is business data architecture?

What is a business data architecture?

A business data architecture comprises definitions and models of an organisation’s concepts and data using the language of the business.

Master your business data
Master your business data

It forms a picture of the business in terms of the data. It helps us understand the fundamental concepts on which the whole business is based.

Advantages of a business data architecture

Because the essential concepts of the business are long lasting, a business data architecture provides an enduring view of the business.

This stable base supports business agility by separating those aspects that change frequently. Such changes can be made more easily, whilst retaining confidence in the quality and integrity of the overall system.

Potential extensions and changes to this data and their inter-relationships can be discussed at a business level. Following such discussions, the implications for IT, the organisation’s data bases and the technical architectures can be determined.

Such a business oriented approach supports business agility, the ability to rapidly but safely make adjustments in response to a changing business environment.

Data for business agility

Data reveals the current state of an organisation’s business.

Zachman data layers
Zachman data layers

Data provides transparency to processes; it shows the current state of any particular transaction and the cumulative results of multiple transactions.

Data can be interpreted to support decisions that affect the future of the organisation. It is a resource that can be harnessed to improve the performance and agility of any organisation.

To harness this resource, it is essential to organise and understand it. The Zachman framework can help achieve this.

Data can be considered at each of the levels defined on the Zachman framework.

Business analysts and architects are mainly interested in the top three rows. In the accompanying diagram we have identified each one of these.

The lower three rows are primarily of interest to technical staff. Because we will not cover these in detail, we have summarised them as ‘Technical views’.

Top 3 rows of Zachman

List of data entities demonstrating Zachman framework contextual view for data
Data – Contextual View

Row 1: Contextual – This layer lists all of the organisation’s data. This includes

  • ‘Concepts’, such as Customer, Supplier and Product
  • ‘Attributes’ that describe the concepts; e.g. customer name, product description, unit price and account status

All identified data should have a description created and owned by business stakeholders, not IT.

It can also be useful to identify all of the alternative names for concepts and attributes. These are different terms for the same thing, i.e. the synonyms. Different units of an organisation may use particular synonyms; this has the potential for confusion and imperfect communication.

One form on synonym is the abbreviations, or codes, that are used for concepts and attributes

A homonym refers to the use of the same term for different things; homonyms can also result in confusion and should be identified.

Row 2: Conceptual – The conceptual row refers to models of the organisation’s concepts. Concepts might also be considered as ‘data classes’. The conceptual level model contains all the:

  • Business concepts, such as Customer and Product
  • Data items (attributes) of the concepts
  • Associations, or relationships, between the concepts
Customer and Policy with attributes
Conceptual view of data

The bulleted items above can be represented in graphic form. There are various standard notations for doing this. Forms of data model include:

  • Entity relationship models
  • UML class diagrams

At the conceptual level, all attributes should be associated with only one concept. Precision of naming the attributes can help to achieve this, e.g. ‘customer name’ rather than simply, ‘name’. Most significant concepts will have an attribute that allows the business to distinguish between different instances of the concept. E.g., a unique ‘product number’ allows the distinction between different products. Such attributes may be referred to as .’identifying attributes’.

The conceptual level models also show the ‘associations’ or ‘relationships’ between the concepts. At this level, we simply state that associations between concepts exist; we can qualify them in various ways such as labeling them. For example, two concepts of an insurance company are likely to be ‘Customer’ and ‘Policy’. An association between these two concepts  might be labelled ‘purchases’, as in, ‘A customer purchases a policy’. At the conceptual level, we do not have to say how such an association might be represented on a database.

The conceptual level also defines business rules such as the minimum and maximum purchases that someone has to make to meet the organisation’s criteria for being a customer. E.g., does the concept of customer include people who have never made a purchase? A concept is defined by its:

  • Definition
  • AttributesAssociations to other concepts and the associated business rules
  • Associations to other concepts associated business rules
  • Associated business rules

The concepts at this level might also be referred to as Entity Types or Entity Classes.

Row 3: Logical. Logical level contains models of the data that appear similar to the conceptual models. At the logical level the model can demonstrate the logic of an association. For example, to show, logically, the association between a customer and a product they have purchased, we can include the identifying attribute, ‘customer number’ in the set of product attributes; see the diagram below for an example.

Such logical links are known in the terminology of relational databases as ‘foreign keys’. They are not attributes of a concept but are included simply to provide a link between concepts.

Some people refer to this logical view as the physical view. We reserve the idea of physical views to describe views that demonstrate where data physically resides on the storage medium.

Data - Logical view
Data – Logical view

Lower 3 rows of Zachman for data

The lower three levels of the data column (WHAT) of the Zachman framework describe increasingly more technical, or physical’ views. Such views comprise, for example, ‘maps’ and ‘pointers’ that describe where data resides on the storage media.

These lower layers are of particular concern to data base designers and administrators, data architects, the suppliers of databases and information systems, and so on. The business analyst should at least be aware that these layers exist and are important to the performance of the data bases.

To improve system performance, data designers may, for example,

  • Split, combine or duplicate  the groups of data that the business analyst views as concepts
  • Introduce additional links between data classes
  • Create additional copies of data

Adequate performance is vital to meeting the needs and expectations of the organisation.

The business analyst must work closely with the technical teams to ensure that business stakeholders get timely access to high quality data, when they need it and where they need it.

Databases

Do you know where these concepts and their attributes appear as records (data tables) on your databases? Does the definition of the table and each of its data items match the business agreed definitions of the business concepts and attribute types? Does the set of items in a database table match the set of attributes in the corresponding concept definition? Alternatively, do the data base tables appear to have be arbitrarily designed over the years (decades?); e.g. has someone in the past create a database table and seemingly randomly populated it with data items, assigning arbitrary, inconsistent and non standard names to the tables and their items?

How are the aliases handled on the databases?

Are there multiple copies of a particular concept or its attributes on the database(s). If so, do you know which copy is the ‘master’, i.e. if the copies get out of sync, do you know which one is correct?

Are your organisation’s data definitions created solely by IT? If your organisation uses package software, are your business concept in effect defined by your software supplier? Do you have a model of the data at the business concept level, that can be used in discussions with the business, or do you only have database schemas? Does the business really understand its own data?

What is business analysis?

What is business analysis

Change for the better

What is Business Analysis?

Business analysis concerns the identification and definition of those vital changes, large and small, that all organisations must constantly make in order to:

  • adapt
  • survive
  • prosper

The IIBA defines business analysis as the 'practice of enabling change in an enterprise'. It’s concerned with defining changes to the way an organisation or enterprise does what it does.

Like ships at sea, where storms can explode into life with little or no warning, all organisations operate in an environment,

  • over which they have no control
  • and which is constantly changing

What is a business analyst?

'Business Analyst' is a role that performs business analysis. There are many job titles for this role.

Click here to read about the required skills for business analysts.

Sources of Change

The changes that organisations must react to are caused by a mix of:

  • Politics
  • Economics
  • Society - Cultures and trends - What's cool and what's not
  • Technologies
  • Laws of societies and of nature
  • Environment - the natural environment in which we all live

These are the 'drivers for change'.

PESTLE - Drivers for change

Business analysis - Business strategy

The initial letters of the words of the sources for change form the word, 'PESTLE'.

PESTLE is a technique that organisations use to prompt them to consider where the next changes might come from. This can identify both opportunities and threats.

Thinking in advance is important because organisations must:

  • quickly choose the most appropriate response to the change
  • make any necessary adjustments to their strategy

Failure to do this risks being pushed aside.

The ability to respond quickly and appropriately is summed in the concept of 'business agility'. The ability to respond effectively, seizing opportunities whilst avoiding threats, is dependent on the organisation's relative strengths and weaknesses.

Business analysts can help to guide organisations in becoming more agile. In fact, PESTLE is a good place to start to answer the question, "What is business analysis?" It follows that business analysts must understand the organisation's strategy.

Customers, Suppliers and Competition

Diagram of an organisation and its customers and suppliers operating in the external environment - Based on Rummler and Ramias

Organisations provide services for individuals or other organisations; these are their customers.

It is vital that organisations understand who their best customers are and what they value. Effective business analysts must also have this awareness.

Businesses in similar sectors compete for these customers.

To source the development of their product, organisations in all sectors must compete for the limited resources available from suppliers. These resources may be intellectual or physical,  tangible or intangible.

The nature of the competition must be understood by organisations and their business analysts.

Rummler and Ramias elegantly demonstrate all of the above in their book, ‘White Space Revisited', a must read for business analysts.

Business analysis and business strategy

An organisation's management will use this and other models to help to determine a business strategy. Senior business analysts may define an information system (IS) strategy that will help to achieve the business strategy. The IT department can then define a technical (IT) strategy to support the IS strategy.

  • The IS strategy defines  WHAT is required to meet the business strategy
  • The IT strategy defines HOW to support the IS strategy, i.e. the software, hardware and services that are needed

Business stakeholders, business analysts and IT specialists need to work together for success. It's a team effort.

All these things may come together with the Chief Information Officer, (CIO). Senior business analysts may work closely with the CIO.

A BA's levers for change - Processes, Data and Rules

Business analysis and business processes

Model of a flow of business activities
Business processes

To manage and coordinate their activities, organisations create business processes. These form a major element of business analysis and business architecture.

What is a business process?

Sharp and McDermott, authors of 'Workflow Modelling', define a process as:

  • a set of related activities, ...
  • triggered by an event, ...
  • which achieves a specific result ...
  • for the customer and other stakeholders.

An example of a business event is an order received from a customer.

Results of the process that delivers the customer's order are:

  • The customer receives what they ordered
  • The organisation gets paid

Processes and Customers

The processes on which the life of an organisation really depends are those that are seen by the customers. They must provide value to those customers. In delivering the goods and services, the processes deliver the organisation’s value proposition, their promise of value to the customers. The aim of optimising such processes is to improve the customer experience.

Business analysis and business Data

Processes create and use data. This too forms a major element of business analysis and architure.

Business analysts must seek to understand

  • what data an organisation has
  • where it is created and used
  • where and how it is stored

Modern applications such as artificial intelligence (AI), big data, machine learning, business intelligence and data warehousing are dependent on such knowledge.

Business analysts who have a deep understanding of data and analytics can support the data scientists employed on applications such as AI. They can also help to ensure that the data scientists deliver results of real business value.

If you are not familiar with data modelling, take a look at this short article and video.

Business analysis, data analysis and data analytics

Although the concepts of business analysis, data analysis and data analytics overlap, there are differences between them. Therefore it is useful to first consider them separately as far as this is possible; they all cover a lot of ground and there will be many opinions as to the exact scope of each.

Business analysis is the main topic of this article.

Data analysis can involve the modelling of data in order to understand and define data items and the connections between them. This is a job for a business analyst. Some business analysts may specialise in this area.

Data analytics is a form of data analysis, typically aimed at examining and applying algorithms to very large quantities of data in order to identify metrics such as trends. The people who perform this function may be called data analysts or data scientists. Organisations are likely to have their own understanding of the names and nature of these roles.

Business analysts, particularly those who specialise in data modelling, can support data scientists to help them understand and locate available relevant data.

Other relevant concepts in this area are artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning.

Business analysis and business rules

Business rules

Business rules authority, Ronald Ross, said that rules are typically derived from business policies.

They support:

  • Business processes
  • Use of data
  • Compliance with regulations and acceptable norms of behaviour

They are the glue that binds things together.

Unfortunately, business rules are often out of sight, in databases, computer code, documents and people's minds.

Business analysts can take a leading role in:

  • bringing rules into the open
  • ensuring that they are written in the language of the organisation
  • and placing the control of them in the hands of people who operate the business

For more information about how to record and analyse business rules, see this article.

A holistic approach to business analysis

Although business processes, data and business rules are at the heart of all organisations' operations, they cannot simply be viewed in isolation. They affect each other.

They are also affected by things such as the:

  • workplace and its layout
  • management organisation structure
  • use of tools and technology

To appreciate the implications of this requires an understanding of the structure of the organisation.

Business analysts must consider all of these things both independently and collectively. This is known as taking a holistic approach, a cornerstone of effective business analysis.

Business analysis and enterprise Architecture

Business analysis provides a bridge between the business and its use of IT. That bridge can be constructed with an enterprise architecture.

The architecture links business strategy to IT strategy and the elements that make up the implementation of that strategy. It comprises, directly or indirectly, all of the things discussed in this article.

This allows the impact of changes in strategy to be assessed. It also paves the way for the support of change programmes and projects.

The role of BAs in change programmes and projects

When there appears to be a problem or opportunity a team comprising business people, business analysts, architects and other relevant groups can examine it.

This typically means creating a programme or project. The critical success factors for business analysis are similar to those for project management. There is a close relationship between these two functions and the roles of business analyst and project manager.

The team seeks to:

  • Understand the root cause of a problem
  • Assess the size of the opportunities created by the solution
  • Define the scope of the project or programme

They can also,

  • assess the obstacles to achieving success
  • make a case for change, the business case.

BAs determine requirements for a solution

A key responsibility of a business analyst is to determine the requirements for a solution that will,

  • solve the problem
  • deliver the opportunity

Identifying and defining the true requirements and successfully building solutions based on these requirements, as long been difficult to achieve.

Modern approaches to projects often involve an iterative, so called 'agile' approach, avoiding an immediate dive into detail.

In agile projects, a business analyst might take the role of product owner. This role can

  • help to communicate the goal of the product
  • manage the backlog of needed activities

An aim of such approaches is flexibility in response to changes arising during the project. This in turn can support the achievement of business agility.

Business analysis is a 'people' job

Above all, business analysis is concerned with people. Business analysts don't work with organisations; they work with people. The role is about understanding the perceptions of the people, the business stakeholders. A person's perceptions give context to what they say and what they ask for. A key technique for understanding perceptions is stakeholder analysis; it's among the first things a business analyst needs to do in change project.

When engaging with stakeholders, BAs need to,

  • Demonstrate empathy
  • Listen
  • Show that they are listening, and interested

These are essential for success in applying techniques such as,

  • Interviewing
  • Making presentions
  • Negotiating

Training needs for business analysts

We have seen that business analysis is a wide ranging topic. The business analysis techniques involved in identifying detailed requirements are deceptively straight forward. In the words of Alexander and Beus-Dukic, it's "Simple but not easy".

To see more about what is involved in becoming a business analyst, and the skills and training required, click this link.

Keep in touch

Self study online for business analysis

Business analysis online training.

Self study for BA qualifications.

Read more.

What is a non functional requirement?

Non functional image

Non-functional – “Something that doesn’t work”

To answer the question, ' What is a non functional requirement ', I looked in a dictionary. The definition was, 'Something that doesn't work'.

I checked another well known dictionary; that didn't even list the word.

Presumably, somebody, at some time, thought that if the term, 'functional requirement' described the functions that users needed, then the word ‘non-functional’ was the obvious term to cover everything else.

How wrong can you be?

Simple answers to, “What is a non-functional requirement”?

I’m sure you’ve seen one-liner attempts to describe the word.

  • “System qualities””
  • “Constraints”
  • “How well the system does what it does”

and so on.

But there are significant problems with these attempts.

The problem with ‘simple’ definitions

The term, ‘Non-functional requirement ’ covers a lot of things, often very different things.

It’s a made up word, which is why you see different forms, for example:

  • ‘Nonfunctional’, as often used in English articles
  • ‘Non-functional’,  as typically used in American (US) articles, and in this article
  • Non functional

There’s not always a clear line between functional and non-functional, which perhaps makes it impossible to apply simple definitions.

Let’s put it in the context of buying a car.

You as a car buyer

Your functional requirements

These are very straightforward, for example:

  • Go forward and backward
  • Turn left and right, not at the same time
  • Change speed, faster and slower

What car can’t do these things?

If you’re buying a new car from an approved dealer your first demands would probably not be:

  • “Let me see if it starts”.
  • “Okay, now let me see if it can accelerate, brake, etc.

That’s because we expect all cars to be able to do these things, even cars with no human driver.

So, what are the things that really affect our purchasing decision?

  • Performance?
  • Reliability?
  • Safety?
  • Security?
  • Looks?
  • Build ‘quality’?
  • Comfort – Luxury?
  • ‘Feel’ of the drive?

And of course for most of us there’s the little question of what we can afford.

Volkswagencamper-Transback
More questions

For everything on that list we have to ask more questions, for example:

  • What do you mean by comfort or the feel of the drive?
  • What’s your required level of:
    • performance
    • reliability
    • safety
    • ….

These things seem to have something to do with quality, which is why non-functional requirements are sometimes referred to as ‘quality requirements’.

Quality requirements

The trouble with referring to ‘quality requirements’ is that, although we probably all have an intuitive feeling for what is meant by quality. it’s another word that’s difficult to describe.

For ‘quality’ in the context of cars, we might immediately think of brands such as:

  • Mercedes
  • Range Rover
  • Rolls-Royce
  • Aston Martin
  • Ferrari

and so on.

Each one of these brands probably causes different ideas of quality to spring to mind. For example, the Ferrari suggests speed and power, whilst the Rolls Royce suggests luxury. All of them suggest wealth. There’s something elusive about the word, quality. Can we come up with a better definition?

Quality reconsidered

All modern cars are built to very high quality specifications. It’s the norm and so we take it for granted.

In everyday language, we probably reserve the word, 'quality', for cars that do something over and above the norm, for example, those that are built to perform at very high speeds or to provide the ultimate in luxurious interiors or to be outstandingly safe and secure. These are the things that push up the price. Quality in this sense costs money.

A more useful, and accepted, definition of quality is, 'fit for purpose'.

Mercedesbenz-Treebackground

Problem solving

Probably the most fundamental thing to understand about specifying a requirement is that it must relate to a problem to be solved or an objective to be achieved.

Given that any car will get you from A to B, what are your personal objectives? What problem are you trying to solve?

What are your objectives in buying this car?

Perhaps your main objective is one of the following:

  • Get across town as cheaply as possible once or twice a week
  • Get across the country as reliably as possible every day
  • Take the children to school as safely as possible
  • Have room for a large family and a dog
  • Have a bit of fun and excitement
  • Go shopping
  • Inner city driving
  • Drive off road
  • A holiday motor home
  • Fuel economy

The price differences between such alternatives can be extreme.

Why do these things create such price differences?

The obvious first answer is that these different situations require different levels of components and construction.

Because high-performance sports cars can reach such high speeds they require something special in the design and build of the braking systems, the frame, suspension andwheels.

And whereas a small, low-power ‘run around’, can be a perfectly fine car for the purposes for which it was designed and built, you couldn’t make it go faster by fitting an engine from a Ferrari.

You couldn’t make it better at climbing mountains by installing the wheels and suspension from a Land Rover.

And would you really want to put the upholstery from a Rolls-Royce into your everyday running around?

And that’s the trouble with these things. You can’t make just one change. You’re talking about an entirely different type of vehicle. It’s the whole design and architecture that has to change. You’re talking about every single aspect of the vehicle, individual aspects and combinations of aspects.

Multiple objectives

To make the problem worse, you may have multiple objectives and if you can only afford or only desire one vehicle, then you’re likely to have conflict.

The architectures required to achieve each of the above objectives are all very different.

To resolve such conflicts, you’re probably going to have to compromise and choose an architecture that balances your objectives and gives you just enough of what you’re after in each case.

Architectural requirements

The so called non-functional requirements tend to affect many if not all aspects of the construction. They affect its architecture.

Before going any further with this one, let’s return to the world of IT and computer systems.

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Specifying requirements for a computer system

Functional requirements

There are often lively conversations generated around the question of whether to write functional requirements as

  • Traditional requirement statements
  • Use cases
  • User stories
  • ‘Formal’ requirements statements
  • …..

But is this really the big issue?

  • A traditional requirement might be stated as:
    • A receptionist shall be able to check-in a guest
  • A user story might look something like:
    • As a receptionist, I need to be able to check-in a guest in order to….
  • A use case identifies
    • A role, such as a receptionist
    • A function, such as ‘Check-in guest’

In essence, and perhaps superficially, they all look rather similar.

I assume that in all cases the business analyst knows that it is essential to define acceptance criteria and a business rationale.

Getting yourself understood

Even if we hate traditional requirement statements or use cases and absolutely love user stories, we can probably get ourselves understood by users, developers and testers, with any of these approaches by observing the following guidelines:

  • Use the ‘business’ language of the organisation
  • Use pictures, models, diagrams, tables, examples and simulations, where helpful
  • Keep things as simple as possible

Functional requirements, such as: ‘The ‘user role’ shall be able to create an account’, can be developed and implemented with an approach along the lines of:

  • Discuss with users to get the appropriate level of detail to ensure understanding and agreement, on what is meant by an account
  • Discuss with developers to get to the appropriate level of detail to develop an application with which the relevant user role can create an account
  • Discuss with testers and users to establish acceptance criteria
  • Build the application
  • Test the application

Testing the application for compliance with the functional requirement will have one of two basic results:

  1. An account is created – The application works
  2. An account is not created – The application doesn’t work

It’s black-and-white. You can’t half create an account or create half an account. At the end of the test, the account is either there or it isn’t.

If we realise we’ve missed a functional requirement, which we probably usually do, it’s normally straightforward to add it. Or perhaps defer it until later, which takes us to priorities.

Priority

With functional requirements, we can use a priority system such as MoSCoW

  • Must
  • Should
  • Could
  • Want

which can affect the order for the iteration in which functions are developed and implemented.

Non-functional requirements

Non functional requirements are nothing like that.

Categories of non-functional  requirement include:

  • Performance
  • Security
  • Usability
  • Capacity

to name just a few.

You can’t launch a product that doesn’t have these characteristics, even they are implemented at a ‘minimum level’. You can’t defer any of them to a later iteration.

Let's examine a few types of non-functional requirement

Performance

Once the application has been written, an experienced programmer might be able to optimise it for speed of operation, but there’s a limit to what they can achieve like that.

There are other things that need to be considered:

  • Hardware, its capacity and its capability
  • Operating system: you may need one that’s designed for specific operating conditions
  • The network, a mix of hardware and software
  • The database and the database management system, design strategies and the skill of the database designer

These are not things that most application programmers and testers deal with and they affect more than the basic application.

And what exactly do we mean by performance anyway?

  • Response time to an enquiry?
  • Transactions per second?
  • Throughput?
  • Capacity?
  • Accuracy?

However we qualify it, we can see that it affects the architecture of the entire system, hardware and software.

Security

Security is an odd one.

In some systems of categorisation it’s referred to as a functional requirement.

It strikes me as a hybrid. Car manufacturers for example may describe certain security features on their vehicles:

  • Alarms
  • Locking devices
  • Tracking devices

all of which make the car more difficult to steal.

These things probably involve both hardware and software and as features they presumably qualify as 'functional'.

But then we can get various grades, or quality levels, of these pieces of equipment, which is typically what is referred to as a non-functional requirement.

For computer systems, the design, build and monitoring of the security aspects is of course a highly specialised operation.

The average application programmer and functional tester is not trained to do this.

Safety

Safety has similar characteristics to security.

Again the car manufacturers can add certain features

  • Airbags
  • Devices in the wing mirrors that make them light up when an overtaking vehicles get close
  • Devices in the headlights to show up people at the sides of the road

and so on.

Once again, all of these may be described as functions and once again these functions will certain qualities in the material used and the construction and testing processes.

Usability

User interface design together with accessibility is a specialism that requires an understanding of human perception and the characteristics of the users themselves.

In the design of a car, can all the controls in the car be reached easily and ‘safely’, keeping your eyes on the road?

Does the average application tester know what it means to create a test for usability?

How to gather non functional requirements

It’s an iterative process.

  • Write down what the users tell you they require in termsof:
    • Performance
    • Security
    • Usability
    • ….
  • More specifically, ask about their objectives, the problem they are trying to solve.
  • Ask for a rationale for their choices. If there’s no rationale, it’s not a requirement
  • Hand this information to the specialists responsible for implementation and to the sponsor responsible for budgeting.
  • Go back to the users with the cost and development estimates for what they’ve asked for and with the sponsor’s comments, perhaps toned down a bit
  • If they still want it and can afford it, you’re done
  • Else adjust the figures and repeat as necessary
  • No sweat

Specifying and implementing non-functional requirements

In specifying requirements, we have to think about who will be receiving them.

To facilitate this, rather than thinking of non-functional requirements as a group, think about each type, e.g.

  • Performance
  • Security
  • Usability
  • ….

For each type, we need to determine:

  • What sort of specialist is needed to implement it?
  • What information does that specialist to get the context and detail they need to determine what they have to do?
  • What skills are required to test the finished product?

For specialists, we have:

  • Database designers
  • Security experts
  • Performance specialists
  • Software experts
  • Hardware experts
  • User experience experts
  • ....

In practice of course, the technical specialists probably tell the business analysts what they need to know.

Frequently it’s about the numbers:

  • How many transactions per minute?
  • How long does this information need to be retained for?
  • How much data?
  • What is the cost of downtime?
  • ….

The business analysts may have forms designed to capture the relevant information.

The main job is then to get the forms to the right people.

Specifying ranges of acceptable values

We mentioned that functional requirements are black and white. Things either work or they don’t.

Architectural requirements can be associated with a range of values:

  • Unacceptable
  • Ideal
  • ‘Over the top’ – (too expensive) for the situation

These numbers might be associated with averages:

  • Mean
  • Mode

For example, we need a response time at the user's monitor no greater than 2 seconds for 80% of the transactions/time.

Designers need these ranges so that they can ensure that the overall system will work within acceptable tolerances.

The different categories of architectural requirement must be balanced.

Perhaps increases in security levels cause reduced performance.

Like putting a wheel on a car, the nuts are gradually tightened so that the wheel is not skewed by over tightening any one of them.

It’s an iterative process.

So perhaps none of the elements are performing at their ideal level, but collectively the system is performing with agreed limits; it's a compromise.

Testing architectural requirements

Testing architectural requirements demands special skills and special tools.

It might involve simulating large numbers of users or background activity to obtain a realistic view of the production environment.

Not all testers have these skills or know how to use these tools.

Do we need to go through all this trouble?

When designing critical software for:

  • Vehiclesignalling systems, control systems, trading systems, and so on.
  • Air traffic control
  • Signaling systems.
  • Body scanners
  • Control systems
  • Trading systems

and so on, it's vital to obtain the right information that will lead to appropriate designs. Lives and the survivability of organisations can depend on this.

But does this really happen for the average office system?

For systems with special criteria, high loads, etc, somebody has to do this before the product gets built and tested.

If that somebody is to be the business analyst, they need the skills and knowledge to be able to do it.

Your definition?

Can you think of a simple definition to answer the question, 'What is a non functional requirement?' that covers everything discussed in this article?

If so, I'd like to hear it.

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Business analysis e-learning courses

Lessons from Confucious

Capiro offers online training courses for business analysts.

You've probably heard the quote from the ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius:

  • I hear and I forget.
  • I see and I remember.
  • I do and I understand.

We've built our 'Guides to Success' e-learning courses for business analysts to allow you to hear, see and do.

Meditation icon

BCS business analysis qualifications

Business analysis e-learning is excellent preparation for the BCS business analysis examinations, should you choose to take any of them.

Our approach to designing online courses for business analysts will also help you in:

  • Applying your learning to your work situation.
  • Succeeding in job interviews.
  • Becoming a valued member of a business analysis team.

Managing complexity in business analysis e-learning

Divide and rule

Our online business analysis training courses are divided into modules that cover the syllabus for the relevant BCS business analysis examination which makes them an excellent preparation for these qualifications.

Each module contains a number of lessons and lessons contain topics and quizzes. This means that you can break down your learning into bite size chunks. The following section describes the structure of a lesson and how it will help you to succeed.

Video

Video is becoming increasingly popular in online training. That's because they can hold the learner's attention, providing interesting demonstrations of the material.

We use video mainly to provide a summary of the main points of a lesson before you get into the detail. You therefore start the more detailed section with a good grasp already in your head.

Where useful, there are animations to illustrate and explain particular aspects of the lesson.

Capiro Andromeda Articles Anatomy of a course

Text with images

The text generally provides more than just a copy of the video narrative.

It can go into more detail where necessary and can cross-reference other lessons in order to show how topics are related.

The text is written in a style that supports scanning. This helps the reader to quickly read the text whilst having their eyes drawn to important words, phrases, and sentences.

The text might also include recommended additional reading and useful information that is not on the exam syllabus.

The video and text together make a great source for exam revision.

Online quizzes for business analysis e-learning

Quizzes check immediate understanding of the topics covered in the video and text. This helps the reader to memorise important topics that could appear as exam questions.

Every lesson has a quiz with a number of questions. You should repeat these questions until you get the correct answers instantly every time. If you think about it, there are only so many questions that the exam you take can draw from. This means that if you cover enough practice questions you will dramatically increase your chances not just of passing this exam but passing well.

In addition, there is a timed practice exam in the style of the actual exam.

Quiz

Additional practice to succeed with business analysis e-learning

Some lessons include the following practice sessions.

Practical exercises

Practical exercises are based on a case study that contains a detailed scenario.

Case study questions will require you to create something, not just answer a multi choice question.

This will develop your understanding of particular topics and help you to apply what you have learned to work situations.

Although case study questions are not in the multi-choice style exam format, the extra knowledge you gain from doing them will help you to answer exam questions.

Interactive activities

An advantage of a business analysis e-learning course is that it can include interactive exercises. The benefit of this is that it draws in the learning, getting them more involved and increasing their ability to recall the material.

Interactive exercises involve you directly in taking actions to enhance your e-learning experience.

They employ a number of techniques that allow you to participate both physically and mentally in e-learning situations.

Interactive

A self study approach to training

Our approach is to offer a guided self study approach to learning and obtaining business analysis qualifications. Everyone who takes our courses is encouraged to contact us to get one on one support and advice. We can do this with messages, phone calls or Zoom meetings, as suits the need of a particular client.

Early bird pricing for launches of business analyis e-learning courses

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Is e-learning the future until the pandemic is over?

Picture of woman taking an online training course in a classroom.
E-learning or classroom learning?

Is e-learning a temporary phenomenon?

There has recently been a huge increase in interest surrounding e-learning. This has got training providers rushing to convert their classroom material to e-learning formats.

The interest is obviously understandable whilst social distancing is or has been a feature of daily life. It also fits the bill when many organisations are supporting home working for their staff.

But once the pandemic is over, won’t everyone be returning to real training?

Can e-learning ever be as good as classroom based learning?

Plus points for live training

  • Immediate access to the trainer.
  • The trainer is an expert in their subject and is trained in the best techniques to get their expertise into the minds of the learner.
  • The classroom can be optimally designed and fully equipped with the latest presentation technology
  • Learners can meet other learners, establish contacts and get 'linked in'.
  • There is a fixed timetable so the trainer can ensure that all learning content is covered and all objectives are achieved.

Is what you just read always true?

Thinking back to training courses that you’ve attended, have you ever experienced any of the following?

  • A seemingly endless flow of ‘busy’ PowerPoint slides riddled with bullets?
  • Trainers reading from the slides or their notes?
  • Handouts consisting of nothing but a copy of the slides?
  • Too many attendees?
  • You got a seat in the back far corner and couldn't get a clear view of the trainer’s screen?
  • Lecture delivery too fast or too slow?
  • Twiddling your thumbs whilst everyone waits for the slowest person to catch up with an exercise?
  • The room was too hot or too cold or too stuffy?

Trainer skill and knowledge

Still thinking back to training courses that you’ve been on,

  • Was every trainer really as knowledgeable as you would have expected and as engaging as you would have liked?
  • Did you have all your questions answered?
  • By the time you’d worked out how to express your question, had the class moved on?

Obviously, there can be a big gap between the best and the ‘not so good’ in classroom training but how rare are the situations I’ve just described?

How much time do you actually get with the trainer?

The timetable for a 3 day course with an exam on the last afternoon will typically look something like this:

  • Day one
    • Administration, self introductions, and an overview of the course
    • Three quarters of a day for learning?
  • Day two:
    • Full day of training?
  • Day three:
    • Full morning of training?
    • Time for a lecture just after lunch?
    • Brief revision time?
    • Exam starting at say 3.30?
    • Course wrap up and course evaluation sheet
  • Overall
    • About two and a half days of actual training?

What about the ‘best’ classroom learning?

In the best classroom teaching you will have :

  • An inspiring and knowledgeable trainer, capable of making the trickiest topics seem easy
  • Great handouts with ‘long term’ value
  • Low number of fellow learners
  • Well-equipped, air-conditioned rooms with comfortable furniture
  • Well designed exercises and well run exercise sessions

Of course, even with the best classroom training, the time constraints are inevitable. Gone are the days when employers were prepared to pay for (and lose their staff for) a training course spread over a week, or even two weeks.

Can e-learning do things any better?

Let’s first look at what we might understand by ‘e-learning’.

What is e-learning?

At its most basic, e-learning is training that’s delivered online, i.e. to a computer of some sort, desktop, tablet or smartphone. It’s learning delivered ‘in a box’.

E-learning may come in many forms. For example:

  • Learner accesses:
    • Training provider’s website
    • A training app on their smartphone, e.g. Google Primer
    • Learning management system (LMS)
  • Virtual classroom
  • Webinar
  • Zoom sessions
  •  ….

Let’s consider two broad categories of e-learning.

  1. Accessing a training provider’s web site
  2. Accessing a learning management system (LMS)
Training accessible from a website

With this option, a ‘training provider’ sets up their courses on a computer server and makes them accessible via a web site.

The learner always sees the latest version of the course.

Apart from any apps or documents that the learner is able to download from the provider’s web site, they don’t need to store anything on their own device.

Training via a web site can be the most economical option although prices vary widely. Some prices may be aimed at the corporate rather than at the private market.

‘Training supermarkets’ such as Teachable, Udemy and Lynda provide a platform that make it easy for anyone to set up and sell a course.

Some of the content on YouTube and similar sites might be regarded as e-learning.

Just as with classroom training, there’s a big gap between the really good and the not so good.

Who uses this option?

This is typically the option for someone who is paying for their own training.

Corporate’s can also find this an attractive option, minimising the amount of money and effort that they have to put into providing the training.

Training accessible from an LMS (Learning Management System)

A learning management system (LMS) supports the management and delivery of computer-based training courses.

An LMS typically allows a learner’s progress and test results to be tracked.

Who uses this option?

An LMS will typically be used by an organisation to provide training for their employees.

The organisation might install their own LMS or use one provided by a 3rd party.

An LMS can be an economical solution for an organisation, particularly one with large numbers of employees to train.

It can be very attractive for areas such as ‘compliance training’.

Using specialist tools, training modules for the LMS can be developed by an organisation’s own staff or by third party e-learning consultants.

Isn’t e-learning just an online PowerPoint presentation?

The better e-learning courses are designed and produced by full-time professionals with specialist knowledge.

There’s a large amount of evidence based information available on how to design e-learning courses that teach in an effective and captivating, even entertaining, manner.

E-learning designers and producers can take advantage of many learning technologies. E-learning is increasingly becoming something of a ‘science’ or discipline as well as an art.

The training provider and e-learning designers will typically seek to fully engage the learner in the course. To that end the course content can be delivered in a variety of imaginative and attention grabbing ways to stimulate the learner. For example:

  • Video including interactive video
  • Interactive situations, e.g. selecting items and then dragging and dropping them onto the correct place
  • Images, including ‘labelled images’, where images appear on ‘mousing over’ a label
  • Audio
  • Games (‘Gamification’)
  • Simulations
  • Scenarios in which the learner is routed through the course according to decisions that they make
  • Quizzes in various forms, relatively passive as well as being fully interactive
  • ….

The above can be backed up with:

  • Links to further online information
  • Downloadable PDFs for additional information, summaries and revision

Are e-learning courses fixed length?

Courses may or may not be fixed length but the important point is that with e-learning the learner can be in control.

Obviously, if the e-learning is being provided by a person’s employer there are still likely to be some time constraints.

In general, the learner can:

  • Select days of the week and times of day that suits them and their work and lifestyle
  • Repeat lessons as often as required
  • Do the exercises and check the answers at their own pace
  • Repeat the exercise as often as needed
  • Take an associated exam when ready; exams are expensive and so are resits

What about health and safety issues?

It is certainly true that prolonged sitting and use of a computer can have undesirable side effects. But this is also true of many classroom courses, for example, when learning a programming language or an office application.

There is now a lot of advice available online concerning health and safety for people working for extended periods on a computer in their own home. Important health and safety concerns and recommendations include:

  • Take frequent breaks and regular exercise such as walking
  • Use a desk of appropriate height
  • Use seating that can be adjusted, recline and provide lumbar support
  • Look away, ideally into the distance, at frequent intervals to avoid eyestrain
  • If an audio transcript is provided, listen to that rather than looking at a computer.

Ergonomically sophisticated furniture can be very expensive. On the other hand,

  • Did you find that all the above guidelines were followed in classrooms that you have experienced?
  • Did all training venues provide expensive seating?

Can the feeling of isolation be an issue for e-learners?

This is a potential issue, for some more than for others.

Many providers of e-learning employ a number of techniques to get over the problem of isolation.

  • Virtual classrooms
  • Forums, Slack groups, Zoom sessions, and private Facebook groups for course members
  • Providing a means for direct correspondence with a live trainer
  • Member only forums

Do people find motivation difficult to sustain in an e-learning course?

This can be challenge, particularly if the training extends over a number of days or weeks. There are plenty of guidelines available to get over this hurdle.

  • Have a preferred place for your study.
    • Not many of us have a study equipped like the office of a senior executive in a large company, but consider that all you need to study is a computer, tablet or a smartphone and perhaps a (paper) notepad and pen
  • You can make any space your own
    • If you have family members, get them to respect it
  • You can of course study when it suits you
    • But for most people, it’s probably a good idea to have a fixed time when they do their serious study
    • Try to get family members to respect your preferred time
  • Try other study places by way of a change, for example, listening to audio whilst walking or travelling, or whilst other members of your household are watching the television.

What if the learner gets stuck?

  • Most people will probably get stuck at least once in a challenging course. It’s important that the e-learning provider offers ways to get over this. For example:
  • Include a member only contact form
  • Permit direct correspondence with a live trainer, e.g. by phone, Zoom, Slack or similar
  • Assign a trainer to a learner
  • Introduce live webinar style sessions

Can e-training be tailored to an individual learner?

E-learning can reflect multiple learning styles in a way that is generally not possible for standard classroom based teaching. This is demonstrated with the examples I have already given.

Freedom from many of the usual time constraints makes it easier to offer learners a variety of approaches.

Learners can start, pause, replay, take a break, and end their session whenever they like. They are in control. It's their place – their pace.

Why e-learning?

Aside from taking advantage of the fact that people are working at home anyway and the social distancing is largely being complied with, is there any compelling reason to choose e-learning over standard classroom training?

Is it horses for courses? Are there any downsides? Let’s examine this.

Advantages of e-learning

Some obvious advantages are:

  • Travel: Cost and time
  • Price: This is typically lower for e-learning courses than for classroom based training
  • Flexibility and convenience
  • Accessible from anywhere, more or less
  • Individual work and lifestyles can be catered for
  • Multiple styles of learning can be supported
  • Easily repeatable
  • Interactive training styles can keep the learning directly involved

What about the disadvantages?

I’ve already mentioned some possible challenges to effective learning, for example:

  • Risk of isolation
  • Difficulties with motivation
  • Finding a suitable place to do the training
  • …..

Some people just prefer to have a live trainer, be in a classroom and interact in person with fellow learners.

Some learning tasks are better suited to live training. I don’t think I’d want to be operated on by a surgeon who had qualified after a series of e-learning courses or fly with a pilot who had never actually flown with an instructor.

Perhaps a hybrid training plan is what is needed.

Mixing e-learning with live training

E-learning will be an increasingly viable and popular option in the foreseeable future. But live training, in a classroom or other appropriate environment, will surely continue to be in demand once the pandemic is over.

E-learning can be the ideal choice in many situations, for example:

  • Preparing for multi-choice exams
  • Compliance and standards training
  • Learning the theory of something – Even things like sales skills
  • Certain types of ‘Just in time’ training

Thanks to simulations and scenarios, e-learning can also be applicable to learning certain types of skills: for example, handling management situations, sales skills, counselling, and so on.

Classroom learning can be the ideal choice for many practical skills where immediate feedback on a physical activity is required. As well as surgery and flying, this will include skills such as giving presentations, interviewing.

A comprehensive training plan will typically need to include both e-learning and live training, playing to the strengths of each.

Capiro and e-learning

At Capiro we’ve been developing e-learning courses for about five years.

We specialise in business analysis.

We are currently offering and developing a series of online courses to support business analysts wishing to self study and take online exams for the British Computer Society, BCS, certificates in business analysis.

Further reading

If you would like to follow up this article with further reading, you may be interested in reading

Online Learning: A Panacea in the Time of COVID-19 Crisis

from the Journal of Educational Technology Systems.

 

Course launches with early bird pricing

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Mini Course – What is a use case?

Picture showing sequence of activities in a business process. Shows the activities, the person performing them and the use case to support them.
Tasks, performers and use cases cooperating in a business process.

About the course

‘What is a use case?’ is a free mini course for business analysts.

The course describes what use cases are in the context of business activities.

It takes an agile style, team based, approach to,

  • capturing requirements with use cases
  • how to take use cases forward to software development and testing

Course objectives

After following this e-learning course, the reader will know how to develop a flexible approach that helps them to rapidly discover, model and specify user requirements with use cases.

What is a use case? – Course content in detail

Definition and description of use cases

Link and differences between business tasks and use cases

Business use cases

How to name use cases

Use case structure

Documenting Use Cases – Use case scenarios to define the detail of the requirement

Use case actors – The difference between a role and a role holder

Use cases and non functional requirements

Use case diagrams – Modelling use cases

Running workshops to identify, model and specify use cases

Defining system scope with use cases

A team approach to system design with use cases

Testing use cases

Course style

This interactive e-learning course uses text, video and quizzes.

The learner can follow the course at their own pace.

Access the course

Launch Presentation

Boost business agility with Three + One

Business agility

Business agility is the ability to rapidly but safely change in response to or in anticipation of changes in the external environment.

Potential drivers for change are summarised in the acronym, ‘PESTLE’.

  • Political
  • Economic
  • Social
  • Technological
  • Legal
  • Environmental

Business agility is becoming increasingly important in a world where the rate of change and the competition for customers and resources is accelerating.

The agile business analyst is an agent of change. As such, they can help the business to respond to change in a timely and advantageous manner.

A framework for managing change

Framework for an enterprise architecture

An enterprise architecture is, among other things, a tool that can help to map business change to technical responses and technical advances to business opportunities.

Simplified view of Zachman architecture
Zachman architecture – Simplified view

The accompanying diagram, based on Zachman’s framework for an enterprise architecture, highlights six concerns or aspects (my words, not Zachman’s) of an organisation that can be described, modelled and specified at various levels of abstraction, from idea to reality.

The dividing line between the top and bottom three rows was not taken from the Zachman model, but reflects a possibly arbitrary and personal division between:

  1. Rows that are populated with artifacts created mainly by business oriented roles such as business analyst and business architect.
  2. Rows that are populated with artifacts created mainly by more technical roles such as solution architect, designer, systems integrator and developer. This is why, in the accompanying diagram, we refer to the lower three rows as ‘technical views’. We accept that not everyone would make such a classification.

The intent of the following paragraphs is not to describe the Zachman framework in detail; he does a great job of doing that himself. See Zachman framework and The rows – what are they?

The intent is to highlight aspects and views (perspectives) that are immediately relevant to the work of typical business analyst or business architect. And the intent is also to show how the analyst can use the Zachman model to help their organisation achieve greater business agility.

The columns of the Zachman model

The six ‘concerns’, referred to above, are shown as the column headings of the grid. Collectively, these concerns describe a ‘system’.

The business analyst needs to understand an enterprise in terms of these six concerns . The analyst should understand the concerns in the own right and in terms of their relationships with each of the other concerns.

We can consider the columns as areas where the business analyst needs to demonstrate their capability.

The rows of the Zachman model

For each of these concerns, we have six views or ‘perspectives’ these are the rows of the grid.

Going ‘down’ the rows takes us from idea, at the top, to reality, at the bottom. Going from row to row effects a series of ‘transformations’ of the original idea, progressively turning that idea into reality.

The top three rows show business oriented views:

  1. Identification and naming of relevant aspects (Contextual view).
  2. Descriptions and business (conceptual) models of the aspects; (Conceptual view).
  3. Logical models of the aspects (Logical view).

The artifacts (or artefacts) that populate these top three rows are typically created by people with role titles such as business analyst or business architect. These artifacts are abstractions of the real world.

The abstractions, or representations, created by the business analysts and architects are turned into reality in a further series of three ‘transformations’ by people with roles such as solution architect and developer. These are the bottom three rows of the grid.

The bottom three rows are populated with technically oriented models and other artifacts. These describe the ‘technical systems’ and tools that support the business systems.

The final transformation (the ‘bottom’ row) creates (instantiates) the thing itself, i.e. the organisation or enterprise.

Zachman not a methodology or a decomposition

Zachman insists that his model is not a methodology.  However, organisations can create methodologies that reflect an understanding of the model.

Zachman also insists that the rows do not show increasing levels of detail. However, the models and other artifacts associated with each row will probably demonstrate additional details as each successive row gets closer to the real thing. If using the Unified Modeling Language (UML), for example, the models in the lower rows will feature additional icons and ‘adornments’.

Deriving an architecture and methodology from Zachman

In building the enterprise architecture itself, and in creating methodologies that reflect the Zachman model, it can be useful to think in terms of additional levels of detail.

The layered approach supports understanding by hiding complexity from any stakeholder that doesn’t need to see it.

By understanding each column as an entity and as a contributor to a system, and by being aware of how each layer is supported by the layer below it, we will be better able to propose and manage changes to an organisation’s systems efficiently and effectively. We need to do this in order to continuously support strategic objectives and realise game changing opportunities in rapidly changing business environments.

In other words, we have a tool to boost our business agility.

Three plus One

We will focus on 3+1 areas of capability that are critical to successful business analysis and business agility:

1. Business processes – The HOW on Zachman

2. Business data – The WHAT on Zachman

3. Business rules – Impact all columns on Zachman

Plus

People (Inter-personal) skills – Relates to the WHO in Zachman

Business Processes (The ‘How’ on Zachman)

Organisations must continually improve their ability to align themselves and their processes with the changing external environment and to rapidly adapt their responses to business events. This is a major factor in the achievement of business agility.

Many, if not most, of an organisation’s processes provide routine support. But some, perhaps a critical minority, are strategically important and deliver the value created by the organisation. Crucially, the goals of these processes directly support the goals of the organisation.

Read more on business processes.

Business Data (The ‘What’ on Zachman)

Process transparency is key to boosting business agility. Data is key to achieving that transparency.

The essential data of the organisation are the concepts on which the organisation is built. Such concepts include Customer, Supplier, Product or Service, and the various artefacts associated with business transactions such as orders, payments and receipts.

The ‘conceptual view’ (row 2) of the Zachman framework contains models of the (data) concepts.

As well as the concepts themselves, it is vital to understand the associations between the concepts; these are captured as business rules.

Business Rules (The ‘Why’ on Zachman)

Also key to boosting business agility is mastery of the business rules.

Business rules must be visible and be owned by the business. As with processes, rules must be continually aligned with the changing external environment. Rules are incorporated into the processes and the data.

Read more on business rules.

People (Inter-personal) Skills

Business analysis is a people oriented job. Business analysts enjoy working with people, with all the attendant challenges.

Obviously, to do the job of business analyst, a person needs empathy. They need to be able to listen. Those ‘skills’ are perhaps a part of a person’s nature. But there are many skills that can be learned. We refer to such skills as ‘people skills’ or  ‘interpersonal skills’.

Essentially, people skills are to do with communication. We may also refer to people skills as communication skills.

Specific people skills include:

  • Making presentations
  • Facilitation
  • Chairing meetings
  • Interviewing
  • Negotiation
  • Report writing
  • Team leading and leadership

The business analyst can also usefully learn some of the skills of the sales and marketing team, e.g.

  • Understanding the difference between features and benefits
  • Understanding people’s ‘pain points’
  • Achieving a win – win situation
  • Motivation

Video – ‘Basics of data modelling – Part 1’

Introduction.

This video introduces the basics of data modelling. Data modelling is a key skill of a business analyst and is fundamental to creating a business level data architecture.

Duration: 8 minutes. See also, ‘Summary of the video content’, below.

https://capiro.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Classmodellingv7a.mp4

Summary of the video content.

The video is based on a scenario concerning insurance policies and the customers who buy them.

The business view is of course highly simplified; we are trying to explain data modelling, not the business of insurance.

Two classes are identified, Customer and Policy. These represent actual customers and policies.

A class is a sort of blue print that defines the company’s concepts such as their concept of a customer and a policy. The concept identifies the attributes, or data items, for each concept.

The concept of a customer includes attributes such as:

  • Customer name.
  • Status.
  • Post code.

The concept of a policy includes attributes such as:

  • Policy number.
  • Policy type.
  • Purchase date.
  • Price.

Data modelling at the business level is sometimes described as concept modelling. The model itself is described as a conceptual model.

There is an association between the two classes which is labelled, ‘owns’. I.E., ‘One customer owns or more policies’.

The associations capture business rules, such as the rule that to be a customer of this company, it is necessary to have purchased at least one policy.

Another business rule states that a policy must be owned by at least one customer but may be owned by many customers.

Notes on the model.

These notes refer to terms in the Zachman framework such as the distinction between the conceptual and the logical views.

As mentioned, the video describes a conceptual business level model, not a ‘normalised’ logical model. A logical level data model shows such adornments such as ‘foreign keys’.

This introductory video does not describe how to resolve the so called ‘many to many’ associations. This is often more relevant to the logical level view. Arguably the logical level is more relevant to the solution architect than the business analyst or architect, although of course the same person may take on all of these roles.

The notation used in the video is a simple form of UML.

Many analysts consider that UML is too technical and complex to be used for business modelling. This is not correct if UML is used appropriately.

In common with most modelling notations, UML comprises mainly rectangles and lines. It also has other, so called, ‘adornments‘.

UML refers to artefacts such as attributes and various graphic devices as ‘adornments’. It provides a range of adornments relevant to different stages of a projects, e.g. requirements discovery, design, implementation, etc.

Use only adornments that are relevant to a particular stage. And obviously, only use adornments that you and your stakeholders understand. Just because something is available in the UML, it doesn't have to be used.

Training in data modelling

We cover data modelling in our course, 'Business Analysis Foundation'.

Levels and roles of business analysis

Levels of business analysis

This article considers 3 levels of business analysis.

  1. Strategic: Business transformations; Portfolio management; Business change; Business architecture and Target operating models; Business agility; Benefits realisation.
  2. Operational: Business processes; Business data; Management information and Decision support; Business rules;  Business cases; Business requirements discovery; Problem analysis.
  3. Tactical:  Software requirements specification and management;

Business Analysis Roles and Qualities

Business analysis is a demanding function comprising many specific roles, e.g.

– Agent of change; Problem Solver; Modeller; Planner; Facilitator; Negotiator; Reporter; Mediator; Interpreter; Fact Finder; Interviewer; Reviewer; …

Business analysts need to be:

– Business and people oriented; Technically savvy; Effective networkers; Team players; Independent of politics; Self starters; …

Business Analyst Skills Profile

To fulfill the demands of the job, business analysts need a variety of skills, both hard and soft, e.g.

  • Understand the nature of business strategy, goal setting and business planning.
  • Able to think conceptually, to analyse and understand root causes of problems and to identify business based solutions to the identified problems.
  • Able to create business architectures and participate effectively in business change programmes.
  • Competent with business process modelling, business data modelling and business rules.
  • Requirements discovery and specification techniques for functional and non functional requirements.
  • Possess a large range of communication skills including making presentations, interviewing, facilitation of workshops, attending and running meetings and report writing.
  • Demonstrate inter-personal skills such as team leading and negotiation.
  • Apply project skills such as the creation of business cases, setting objectives, planning, estimating and project management.

What is a business analysis centre of excellence?

A framework for improvement

Business Analysis Centre of Excellence Framework
Business Analysis Centre of Excellence Framework

A Business Analysis Centre of Excellence (BACoE)  is a framework that provides structure, context and content for improvement initiatives in business analysis and its relationship to other development centres.

A business analysis centre of excellence is a tool for:

  • Ensuring that the capabilities of business analysts match the needs of the organisation
  • Implementing lessons learnt during programmes and projects
  • Working closely and effectively with all project stakeholders and participants
  • Assisting in portfolio planning
  • Assisting in managing the realisation of benefits identified in programme and project business cases
  • Working efficiently and effectively in all types of project
  • Helping to boost business agility
  • A source for the development of a business architecture
  • Developing the skills of business analysts in line with the needs of the organisation

Optimising Business Analyst Performance

A business analyst’s role is very much about the continuous improvement of business capabilities. But the capabilities of each business analyst and the whole business analysis function also need to be continuously improved.

Unfortunately, business analysts and other team members often do not have the time, independence, authority or appropriate organisational structures to examine and improve their own capabilities and to optimise their own processes and performance.

Sometimes business analysis teams are not aware of what a process of continuous improvement of their own capabilities might look like. Agile business analysis approaches can help, but even here it is not always easy to agree on what should be done, how to go about doing it or finding the time to do it. This is where the Business Analysis Centre of Excellence (BACoE) comes in.

A Business Analysis Centre of Excellence (BACoE) (or Center of Excellence in the States), is a framework that provides structure, context and content for improvement initiatives in business analysis and its relationship to other development centres.

Why have a BA centre of excellence?

Business analysis skills, and suitably skilled business analysts, are critical to the success of change projects, particularly when it comes to:

  • Discovering the essence of the business problems to be solved and the business opportunities to be achieved
  • Solving those problems in a manner that is in line with the business and IS/IT strategic objectives
  • Identifying and managing risks and benefits of the proposed solution in line with corporate and IT governance policies
  • Achieving business agility – the ability to respond rapidly and effectively to a changing world

The business analysis team obviously cannot achieve the above alone. A framework for cooperation, communication and negotiation with all business and IT stakeholders is critical to project success. This framework is supplied by a business analysis centre of excellence.

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